Sarah Talbot

For anyone who is interested. I have written an article about perspectives on using classical music in classrooms. I have recently begun doing this and observed some positive changes in the environment. So I did a little more research. Then, as an exercise for myself, I decided to write an article about the research and my own observation, with references. I also incorporated pertinent links where applicable. Enjoy. 😄

Classical Music in the Classroom:

Neurological, Musical and Pedagogical Perspectives

By Sarah Talbot

Sarah Talbot is a secondary mathematics and science teacher based in Queensland, Australia, with 16 years of teaching experience across diverse subject areas, year levels and educational settings in Australia and the United Kingdom. She holds degrees in music, creative arts, and arts and science, as well as postgraduate qualifications in teaching and learning and information management. Her research interests include music cognition, interdisciplinary pedagogy, classroom environments, and the practical use of music to support student engagement and learning.

Acknowledgment of AI use

OpenAI Codex, powered by GPT-5, was used through the Codex application (available from OpenAI) to draft and refine this acknowledgment. The author supplied the reporting requirements, reviewed the generated text, and retained responsibility for the final wording. No third-party texts, datasets, or other external materials were used or reproduced in the output.

 Abstract

Classical music is often introduced into classrooms on the assumption that it improves concentration, reduces anxiety, or enhances academic performance. Research, however, indicates that its effects depend on the learner, the task, and the musical material. This article examines classical music through neurological, musical, and pedagogical perspectives, with particular attention to arousal, mood, attention, working memory, musical structure, and inclusive classroom practice. These perspectives are applied to a reflective practitioner case study of low-volume instrumental music during independent working time in a Year 8 mathematics classroom in regional Queensland. The teacher perceived a calmer atmosphere, reduced conversational volume and movement, and somewhat greater persistence, while overall engagement appeared largely unchanged. Music also supported the teacher’s own emotional regulation. Because the inquiry used reflective interview data without a systematic baseline, comparison, student, or attainment measures—and because class size, seating, and teacher mobility also changed—the observations cannot establish a causal effect. The article argues that carefully selected music is best understood as adjustable classroom infrastructure rather than a direct cognitive intervention. Practical guidance and a starter playlist are provided for teachers wishing to trial music selectively, monitor individual responses, and retain silence for instruction, complex reasoning, and assessment.

Introduction 

The use of classical music in classrooms is frequently justified by claims that it improves concentration, reduces anxiety, and enhances academic achievement. For teachers, it can also provide a practical way to establish a calm atmosphere, mark transitions, and encourage sustained independent work. Nevertheless, the relationship between music and learning is more complex than the popular assertion that listening to classical music makes students more intelligent. Music influences neurological systems associated with auditory perception, emotion, attention, prediction, memory, and physiological arousal, but these effects do not automatically translate into improved academic performance (Hallam, 2010; Koelsch, 2014). The educational value of classical music depends upon the interaction between the learner, the activity, and the musical material. Used thoughtfully, classical music can support classroom routines, emotional regulation, creative engagement, cultural learning, and interdisciplinary teaching. Used indiscriminately, it can divide attention and interfere with language, memory, and complex reasoning (de la Mora Velasco et al., 2023; Kämpfe et al., 2011). Its effective application therefore requires both pedagogical judgement and an understanding of musical terms and nuances.

This paper examines the neurological and psychological processes involved in music listening, the significance of specific musical characteristics, and the pedagogical practices for incorporating classical music into secondary classrooms. These theoretical perspectives are then considered through a reflective case study of the author’s Year 8 mathematics and science classes, in which classical, instrumental, and orchestral screen music is used to support classroom routines, concentration, emotional regulation, and independent work. The case study draws on observations of student behaviour, engagement, responses to the music, and the broader classroom atmosphere. As a practitioner-based case study rather than a controlled experiment, it does not seek to establish a direct causal relationship between music and academic achievement. Instead, it provides a situated account through which the possibilities, limitations, and practical implications identified in the research literature can be examined within an authentic secondary-school setting.

What is termed ‘Classical’ Music?

For this study, it will be helpful to clarify what is meant by ‘Classical’ music in this context. Classical music is a broad tradition of art music characterised by deliberate composition, detailed notation and established performance practices. Written scores allow different musicians to interpret works repeatedly, although each performance can sound distinctive. Goehr (1992) explains that the idea of the self-contained musical “work” became central to Western concert culture around the beginning of the nineteenth century.

The broad term “classical music” should not be confused with the narrower “Classical period,” which lasted approximately from 1750 to 1820. The wider tradition stretches from medieval sacred music to music composed today. It includes Bach’s Baroque concertos, Mozart’s Classical-era symphonies, Beethoven’s transformational works, Tchaikovsky’s Romantic ballets and Stravinsky’s twentieth-century modernism. However, this familiar repertoire is partly the product of a historical canon: cultural institutions and concert programmes helped establish certain compositions as enduring “classics” (Weber, 1989, 2003).

Classical music remains a living and evolving art form. Contemporary composers may combine orchestras and chamber ensembles with electronics, improvisation and influences from jazz, folk and popular music. Recent examples include Huang Ruo’s interactive orchestral composition City of Floating Sounds, premiered in 2024, and Nathan Bales’s Reminisce, commissioned in 2024 and premiered in 2025 (Curtis Institute of Music, n.d.; Lincoln Centre for the Performing Arts, 2024). Philip Glass’s Symphony No. 13, first performed in 2022, also demonstrates that the symphonic tradition continues to develop (National Arts Centre, 2024).

Film and television music have an important relationship with this tradition. Early Hollywood composers drew extensively on nineteenth-century Romantic music, using orchestras, recurring themes and dramatic harmony to support characters and stories (Cooke, 2008). John Williams continued this approach in scores such as Star Wars (1977), while composers including Bernard Herrmann, Ennio Morricone and Rachel Portman developed distinctive cinematic styles. As Gorbman (1987) argues, screen music helps shape viewers’ interpretations of narrative, emotion, setting and character, even when they are not consciously focusing on it.

Not every soundtrack is classical music. Screen scores may incorporate pop songs, jazz, electronic sound design or culturally specific musical traditions. Nevertheless, many soundtracks use classical forms, orchestration and compositional techniques, and some are performed independently in concert halls. Recent examples include Hans Zimmer’s score for Dune: Part Two (2024), which combines orchestra, voices, electronic textures and specially designed sounds, and the television score for Shōgun (2024), composed by Nick Chuba, Atticus Ross and Leopold Ross. These works illustrate how contemporary screen composers can combine classical practices with modern technology and global musical influences.

Classical music is therefore not simply old music. It is an ongoing creative tradition encompassing historical masterpieces, contemporary concert works and significant areas of cinematic and television composition.

What does the Literature say?

Potential Benefits of Music in the Mathematics Classroom

The thoughtful use of music in a secondary mathematics classroom may support learning by improving students’ emotional readiness, attention, motivation and engagement. However, it is important to distinguish these potential benefits from the popular claim that listening to classical music directly increases intelligence. Research suggests that music is more likely to influence the conditions under which learning occurs than mathematical ability itself. By regulating mood and physiological arousal, appropriate music may help create a calm, purposeful environment in which students are more willing and able to engage with mathematical work.

One potential benefit is reduced anxiety and restlessness. Mathematics can provoke apprehension in students who have experienced repeated difficulty or believe they lack mathematical ability. Calm background music may reduce tension and help students settle into classroom routines. Vigl et al. (2023), in a study of secondary students aged 15 to 19, found that listening to self-selected music before lessons produced strong positive effects on mood, motivation, and concentration, along with moderate improvements in perceived learning. Students described music as providing an energising emotional experience, a mental break and a recognisable routine between lessons. Consequently, playing music as students enter the classroom or prepare their materials may help establish readiness to learn without competing with subsequent teacher instruction.

Music may also support persistence during familiar or repetitive mathematical activities. Milman and Paz-Baruch (2025) studied Year 10 students experiencing difficulties with mathematics. They found that they performed better on algebraic equations when music was present, particularly when they listened to preferred music. The researchers proposed that familiar music may have increased engagement without imposing excessive cognitive load, as the equations were relatively straightforward. Similarly, Hallam, Price and Katsarou (2002) found that calming music improved children’s arithmetic performance, whereas aggressive or highly arousing music could impede performance. These findings suggest that musical characteristics and the demands of the activity are more important than simply labelling a piece “classical.”

For some students, music may also provide an appropriate level of external stimulation. Abikoff et al. (1996) found that, under certain conditions, music improved arithmetic performance among children with ADHD, whereas students without ADHD performed similarly in both the music and silence conditions. Although this study involved younger children, it indicates that students do not respond uniformly to the same auditory environment. Music may help some students regulate attention while distracting others. Therefore, providing periods of silence or allowing reasonable individual choice may be more effective than playing music continuously.

These benefits must be weighed against the limitations identified in the wider literature. Cheah et al.’s (2022) systematic review found that background music most often produced either no measurable effect or a detrimental effect on cognitive performance. Music with lyrics was particularly likely to interfere with language and memory, and difficult tasks were more vulnerable to distraction than simple ones. In mathematics, this suggests that music may be suitable during routine calculations, graph construction, or familiar independent practice, but less suitable when students are reading word problems, learning new concepts, or completing complex multi-step reasoning.

Overall, music can benefit mathematics classrooms by supporting emotional regulation, motivation, classroom routines and sustained engagement. Its success depends on deliberate selection, low volume, appropriate timing, task difficulty and individual student needs. Used selectively, music can help create an environment conducive to mathematical learning without being presented as a direct means of increasing intelligence.

Neurological processing of classical music

Listening to music is a neurologically complex process. Sound waves entering the ear are converted into neural signals in the cochlea and transmitted along the auditory pathway to the auditory cortex. The brain then analyses pitch, duration, intensity, timbre, and spatial location. Musical understanding does not occur in a single “music centre”; instead, it recruits distributed networks involving auditory, motor, emotional, attentional, and memory systems (Koelsch, 2014; Suchy et al., 2008; Zatorre et al., 2007).

The auditory cortex detects patterns of pitch and duration, enabling listeners to perceive melody, harmony, and rhythm. Motor regions, including the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and supplementary motor areas, respond to pulse and metre even when the listener remains physically still (Zatorre et al., 2007). Regular rhythms support temporal prediction, as the brain anticipates the timing of subsequent beats, phrases, and cadences (Large & Snyder, 2009). This predictability can foster a sense of organisation and stability in the classroom, particularly during routines, handwriting, drawing, or repetitive mathematical practice.

Music also engages neurological structures associated with emotion. Research reviewed by Stefan Koelsch (2014) indicates that music can modulate activity in the amygdala, hippocampus, nucleus accumbens, insula, hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex. These structures support emotional interpretation, memory, pleasure, motivation, and physiological regulation. Pleasurable musical experiences can engage the dopaminergic reward system, with dopamine released during both the anticipation and the experience of emotionally powerful musical moments (Salimpoor et al., 2011). This interaction between anticipation and reward helps explain why listeners experience satisfaction when a melody returns, a harmonic tension resolves, or an expected climax is reached.

These findings should not be taken as evidence that all classical music produces identical neurological benefits. Musical reward depends on familiarity, preference, culture, prior musical experience, and the listener’s ability to recognise patterns (Chanda & Levitin, 2013; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008). A student who finds a composition unfamiliar or irritating may not experience the positive response the teacher anticipates. Similarly, an exciting orchestral finale may activate reward and emotional systems while also diverting attention from the assigned task.

Music can also affect the autonomic nervous system, which regulates involuntary physiological processes such as respiration and heart rate. Tempo, volume, rhythmic regularity, and expressive intensity may raise or lower arousal (Chanda & Levitin, 2013). Slow, quiet, and predictable music may help some students move from agitation towards calm alertness. Conversely, loud dynamics, rapid tempi, and abrupt contrasts can increase physiological activation. However, evidence on music and stress remains variable. A systematic review of experimental studies found that the effects of music on stress recovery varied by the music, listener, and the physiological outcome measured (Adiasto et al., 2022). Classical music should therefore be understood as a potentially useful means of regulation rather than a guaranteed treatment for stress or anxiety.

Arousal, mood, attention, and memory

The arousal–mood hypothesis is a major explanation for music’s influence on learning. Academic performance may decline when students are under-aroused and disengaged or over-aroused and anxious. Pleasant music can sometimes move learners towards a more productive level of alertness while improving mood and willingness to persist. This interpretation offers a more convincing account of the so-called “Mozart effect” than claims that Mozart’s compositions possess a unique capacity to increase intelligence. Research by Thompson, Schellenberg, and Husain (2001) showed that temporary improvements in spatial performance after listening to music were largely attributable to changes in arousal, mood, and enjoyment. Listening to Mozart did not produce a permanent neurological increase in intelligence (Schellenberg, 2005).

Classical music may influence learning indirectly. A calm student may commence work more readily, persevere longer, and respond less impulsively. Hallam, Price, and Katsarou (2002) found that calming music was associated with improved performance on arithmetic and memory tasks among children aged ten to twelve, whereas music perceived as aggressive and unpleasant disrupted memory performance and prosocial behaviour. The important variable was not simply whether music was “classical,” but whether its acoustic and emotional qualities were appropriate to the students and the activity.

Music can nevertheless compete with learning. Working memory has limited capacity, and students must allocate cognitive resources among task instructions, recalled information, problem-solving processes, and environmental stimuli (Baddeley, 2012). A systematic review of 95 studies and 154 experiments found that background music generally had a detrimental effect on memory and language-related tasks. Music with lyrics was particularly disruptive, and difficult tasks were more vulnerable to interference than easy ones (Souza & Leal Barbosa, 2023). In many conditions, background music produced neither a reliable benefit nor a measurable disadvantage (Cheah et al., 2022; de la Mora Velasco et al., 2023; Kämpfe et al., 2011).

Instrumental classical music avoids the semantic interference caused by lyrics, but it is not cognitively neutral. A prominent melody, a surprising modulation, or a dramatic crescendo can involuntarily capture attention. Musical and linguistic syntax may also draw on shared processing resources, particularly when the brain must integrate evolving structures (Patel, 2003). This helps explain why music can be disruptive during close reading, essay writing, or complex verbal instruction. Silence is often preferable when students encounter unfamiliar information, complete an assessment, or perform tasks with a high cognitive load.

Musical characteristics and classroom selection

The suitability of classical music depends on its musical structure. Tempo, meaning the speed of the pulse, is one of the most noticeable variables. Slow and moderate tempi—identified by terms such as adagio, andante, and moderato—are often appropriate for quiet work. Rapid allegro or presto movements may increase alertness but can also create restlessness. Tempo must be considered alongside rhythmic density: a slow movement with agitated subdivisions and irregular accents may be more distracting than a moderately paced work with an even pulse. Because emotional responses reflect interactions among musical features rather than a single parameter, these associations are tendencies rather than universal rules (Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008).

Metre organises beats into recurring groups, while rhythm describes patterns of duration and accent. Regular duple, triple, or quadruple metre can provide predictability. Syncopation, changing metre, and irregular accents attract attention because they violate temporal expectations (Large & Snyder, 2009). Predictable rhythmic patterns may support repetitive activities, while rhythmically complex compositions suit purposeful listening or musical analysis.

Dynamics describe volume and changes in intensity. Music remaining within piano or mezzo-piano ranges is generally less intrusive than music featuring frequent forte passages, sudden accents, or extensive crescendos. Classroom playback volume is equally important. Music should remain low enough not to mask speech or cause students to raise their voices.

Texture describes how simultaneous musical lines interact. A transparent texture, such as a solo instrument or a lightly scored chamber ensemble, presents fewer competing auditory events than dense orchestral writing. Contrapuntal or polyphonic music comprises several independent lines. Although a Bach fugue offers rich material for active musical study, its interweaving voices may be too demanding for background listening. A homophonic texture, consisting of a principal melody supported by accompaniment, is often less intrusive.

Timbre, or tone colour, also shapes the classroom environment. Sustained strings, gentle woodwinds, harp, and softly played piano are often perceived as calmer than brilliant brass, forceful percussion, or sharply articulated sounds. These associations are not universal. Students with sensory sensitivities may respond strongly to specific registers, instruments, or recording qualities, making observation and feedback essential (Robertson & Baron-Cohen, 2017).

Harmony, tonality, and mode shape musical tension and emotional character. Consonant harmony, gradual harmonic rhythm, and clearly prepared cadences tend to create stability. Dissonance, chromaticism, unexpected modulation, and unresolved harmony can create tension and anticipation. In Western listening contexts, major modes are often associated with brightness, and minor modes with sadness or reflection, but emotional meaning also depends on tempo, articulation, register, and cultural conventions and experiences (Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008).

Finally, form influences predictability. Balanced phrases, repetition, and clearly recurring sections reduce uncertainty. Binary, ternary, rondo, and variation forms may provide an intelligible framework, whereas dramatic contrasts or extended climaxes can attract conscious attention. Familiarity can be beneficial, but highly familiar melodies may prompt humming, mental singing, or autobiographical memories. A successful classroom playlist therefore requires more than simply collecting famous compositions: each work should be evaluated for its tempo, dynamics, texture, expressive intensity, and its likely relationship to the intended task.

Pedagogical practices using classical music

One of the most effective uses of classical music is establishing predictable classroom routines. A short piece played as students enter can signal that students should prepare materials and reduce conversation. When used consistently, the music becomes an auditory cue that requires fewer verbal reminders. A different piece can mark pack-up time, transitions between activities, or the shift from collaborative to independent work. The purpose is behavioural conditioning and environmental organisation, not direct intellectual enhancement.

Music can also support self-regulation and readiness to learn. After lunch, physical activity, or a disruptive transition, two or three minutes of quiet listening can provide a structured pause. Teachers can pair this with slow breathing, a visual focus, or a brief mindfulness exercise. Students might be asked to notice the pulse, identify an instrument, or trace the rise and fall of a phrase. This gives attention a clear object without requiring extensive verbal processing. Because evidence on music listening and stress recovery is mixed, teachers should treat this as a classroom strategy to monitor rather than a clinical intervention (Adiasto et al., 2022).

During independent practice, carefully selected music may mask unpredictable background noise and establish a shared expectation of quiet concentration. It is most appropriate for familiar, low-to-moderate-load tasks, such as routine calculations, copying diagrams, drawing, handwriting, colouring maps, or revising known material. Teachers should pause the music when explanations begin and avoid it during complex reading, new problem-solving, or formal assessment (de la Mora Velasco et al., 2023; Kämpfe et al., 2011).

Classical music can enhance retrieval practice when used as a consistent contextual cue, though teachers should not make recall dependent on a particular recording. Context-dependent memory effects are real but variable, and transfer is more robust when learning can be retrieved across contexts (Smith & Vela, 2001). A piece might accompany a regular five-minute review activity, creating an identifiable classroom ritual. Its duration can also provide a natural time boundary: students know the review concludes when the movement ends.

Classical music has substantial potential for interdisciplinary learning. In history, compositions can be examined as cultural sources that reflect patronage, nationalism, revolution, industrialisation, war, or social hierarchy. Beethoven’s Eroica Symphony can prompt discussions of Napoleon and European political change, while Shostakovich’s music can prompt consideration of artistic life under Stalinism. Science classes can examine sound waves, frequency, resonance, and instrumental acoustics. Mathematics can investigate ratios, rhythmic fractions, patterns, symmetry, and variation. English students can translate musical narratives into descriptive writing or analyse how composers create tension without words.

Active-listening routines develop disciplinary vocabulary and attentive listening. Students can identify tempo, dynamics, instrumentation, texture, repetition, and mood; map the structure of a short movement; or justify how musical evidence supports an interpretation. Movement can also embody pulse, metre, phrasing, and changes in intensity. Research on music-and-movement pedagogy (del Barrio & Arús, 2024; Phillips-Silver & Trainor, 2007) emphasises the educational value of representing musical structure through bodily action.

Classical music may further support creative pedagogy. Students can write a scene inspired by a composition, create artwork responding to timbre and dynamics, design a narrative that mirrors its form, or select music for a historical documentary. Such activities recognise that transfer is most likely when learning processes share meaningful features, rather than when music is merely present in the background. Susan Hallam’s (Hallam, 2010) research synthesis similarly stresses that the developmental benefits of musical engagement are strongest when participation is active, enjoyable, and educationally purposeful.

Inclusive practice remains essential. Teachers should explain why music is used, keep the volume low, and seek student feedback. Quiet alternatives may be necessary for learners with auditory-processing difficulties, hearing impairment, attention disorders, autism, migraine, or heightened sensory sensitivity. Respect students’ cultural experiences. Classical music should broaden musical exposure without being presented as inherently more intelligent, civilised, or educationally valuable than other traditions (Robertson & Baron-Cohen, 2017).

CASE STUDY: Music in a mathematics classroom, a teacher’s observation

Context and practitioner position

The case occurred in a government secondary school of approximately 900 students in an agricultural community in South-East Queensland. The teacher had 15 years of experience across state, Catholic, independent and religious school systems in Australia and the United Kingdom, with teaching responsibilities spanning mathematics, science, humanities and music. Their formal study included science and arts, secondary education, creative arts, music with honours, and information management. This extensive musical background shaped both confidence in selecting repertoire and a belief that music could contribute to classroom atmosphere. It also represents a potential source of interpretive bias, because the practitioner entered the inquiry with a positive personal relationship with music.

The Year 8 mathematics class initially comprised 28 students and was later reduced to 18 to address behavioural concerns and create a more manageable learning group. Attainment ranged broadly from B to E levels. The teacher reported truancy, non-participation, loud talk, horseplay and occasional external disruptions, as well as ADHD, autism and auditory sensitivities within the class. The established lesson routine included entry and folder collection, a written learning intention, explicit instruction and worked examples, independent or group working time, and a structured pack-up.

Rationale and implementation

The teacher began using music after gaining a dedicated classroom and considering how independent working time might feel less silent, “cold” and institutional. Student requests for popular music had previously led to disagreement about lyrics, volume and suitability. The teacher therefore chose a compromise: classical, orchestral, and screen music, along with calm instrumental remixes, played only during working time. The stated aim was not to raise intelligence but to create a calmer, more purposeful learning space and explore whether the auditory environment influenced participation, focus or persistence.

Selection criteria were practical and closely aligned with the musical principles discussed earlier in this article. Music generally contained no intelligible English lyrics, little percussion, no prolonged high pitches, and moderate-to-slow tempi. Sources included commercially curated classical playlists, an Australian classical-radio playlist and the teacher’s own playlist combining concert repertoire with music by screen composers such as John Williams and Hans Zimmer. Familiar television and film music was added after student suggestions. Occasional faster works were retained for periods when the class appeared under-aroused or sleepy.

Music began after explicit teaching, when students moved into independent or group practice. It was played at a level the teacher compared with barely noticeable supermarket music. The teacher controlled playback from a laptop connected to classroom speakers, lowered the volume according to class activity, and paused the music for further explanation, significant disruption or behaviour escalation. Music was not used during tests. Although no student had demanded that it be removed, the teacher indicated that a request based on discomfort or sensory need would be considered.

“The intention of the music was intended to be background, not forefront.”

Perceived changes in classroom climate and persistence

Students initially objected to classical music and repeatedly requested familiar popular songs. The teacher maintained the boundaries around lyrics and volume while allowing input through instrumental soundtracks and remixes. Over time, students appeared to accept the arrangement and indicated that they preferred some music to complete silence, even when it was not their first choice. Recognition of music from Swan Lake, Bluey, Harry Potter and other screen contexts helped connect unfamiliar repertoire with students’ existing cultural knowledge.

The teacher did not report a substantial improvement in overall engagement. This is an important qualification because it limits a celebratory interpretation. The more consistent observations concerned the atmosphere of the room: conversational volume appeared lower, students were more likely to remain seated, and the class felt calmer. Persistence seemed to improve when students were asked to attempt a problem again, although completion rates, time on task and mathematical performance were not systematically measured.

“Engagement was about the same; however, persistence seemed to improve.”

Individual and relational regulation

Responses appeared to differ among students. Learners who were sensitive to loud environments did not appear distressed by the low-volume classical music. In one memorable incident, a student who commonly wore sound-reducing headphones chose to remove them while the music was playing. Another student commented that the music helped them focus on something other than louder classmates. These examples suggest that predictable music may have organised or partially masked less predictable classroom sound for some students. They remain illustrative incidents rather than evidence of a class-wide or disability-specific effect.

The practice also influenced the teacher. Music was described as calming and as reducing the likelihood of responding defensively when disruption occurred. This raises a relational possibility: changes attributed to the auditory environment may have been mediated partly through the teacher’s mood, tone and behaviour-management decisions. Music may therefore have operated not only as a stimulus for students but as part of a shared classroom ecology.

Interpretation, competing explanations and limitations

The most defensible interpretation is that music functioned as classroom infrastructure. It marked independent working time, softened silence, provided a predictable auditory layer and supported a negotiated sense of ownership. The teacher’s account is consistent with research suggesting that music may influence mood, arousal and the conditions surrounding learning rather than mathematical ability directly (Hallam et al., 2002; Schellenberg, 2005). Using instrumental rather than lyrical repertoire also reduced a recognised source of interference with memory and language-related processing (Souza & Leal Barbosa, 2023).

However, the case cannot establish that music caused the perceived changes. The class was reduced from 28 to 18 students, the seating arrangement was adjusted, and the teacher increased the use of technology to work from different positions in the room. Any of these changes could have contributed to calmer behaviour and improved rapport. The data were retrospective and teacher-reported; no baseline observations, comparison lessons, independent observer, systematic student voice, behaviour-frequency counts or achievement measures were available. The teacher’s expertise and enthusiasm for music may also have shaped both implementation and interpretation.

Accordingly, the case should be understood as hypothesis-generating practitioner inquiry. It suggests that low-volume, lyric-free and task-sensitive music may support classroom climate and regulation in some contexts. However, it does not demonstrate improved mathematical attainment or a universal benefit. Future development could incorporate a short lesson-observation log, anonymous student feedback and additional teacher cases. Analysing each teacher as a distinct case before comparing common themes would preserve differences in class composition, subject, purpose, repertoire and implementation.

A 20-piece starter classroom playlist

Drawing on research indicating that the effects of background music depend on tempo, intensity, task difficulty, and learner characteristics, the following pieces are proposed as possible starting points for classroom use. The recommendations are based upon the musical characteristics of the works rather than direct experimental testing of each composition.

Table 1: Evidence-informed starter playlist.
Piece and composer	Musical qualities	Suggested classroom use
“Air” from Orchestral Suite No. 3 in D Major, BWV 1068 — Johann Sebastian Bach	Sustained melodic line, regular pulse, consonant harmony and restrained dynamics	Quiet independent work, handwriting or settling the class
Prelude in C Major, The Well-Tempered Clavier, BWV 846 — Johann Sebastian Bach	Repeating arpeggiated figures, predictable harmonic progression and transparent texture	Entry routine, familiar calculations or organising notes
“Scene by the Brook” from Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Op. 68 — Ludwig van Beethoven	Pastoral character, moderate tempo, flowing rhythms and gentle orchestral colour	Drawing, reflective writing or environmental science activities
Pavane, Op. 50 — Gabriel Fauré	Moderate tempo, elegant phrasing, restrained orchestration and gentle rhythmic movement	Reading preparation, quiet revision or a calming transition
“Morning Mood” from Peer Gynt Suite No. 1, Op. 46 — Edvard Grieg	Gradual thematic development, clear woodwind melody and increasing orchestral warmth	Morning entry, preparation of materials or the beginning of a lesson
“Venus, the Bringer of Peace” from The Planets, Op. 32 — Gustav Holst	Spacious orchestration, slow harmonic movement, gentle timbres and predominantly quiet dynamics	Reflection, mindfulness, creative work or calming the class after an active lesson
“Venetian Boat Song,” Op. 30, No. 6, from Songs without Words — Felix Mendelssohn	Lyrical piano melody, rocking accompaniment, moderate tempo and balanced phrases	Independent practice, handwriting, drawing or quiet mathematics work
Second movement, “Andante,” from Piano Concerto No. 21 in C Major, K. 467 — Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart	Balanced Classical phrasing, transparent texture, steady accompaniment and lyrical melody	Routine revision, completing familiar exercises or quiet concentration
“The Swan” from The Carnival of the Animals — Camille Saint-Saëns	Sustained cello melody, flowing piano accompaniment and calm, expressive phrasing	Short calming exercise, reflective writing or transition into silent work
Fantasia on Greensleeves — Ralph Vaughan Williams	Gentle string writing, pastoral timbre, familiar melody and predominantly reflective character	Creative activities, visual work, reading preparation or end-of-lesson reflection
“Dawn” — Dario Marianelli, from “Pride & Prejudice” (2005)	Lyrical piano, transparent texture, balanced phrasing and restrained dynamics	Entry routine, handwriting or quiet individual work
“Concerning Hobbits” — Howard Shore, from “The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring” (2001)	Pastoral melody, gentle orchestration and dance-like rhythmic sections	Familiar mathematics practice, drawing or class preparation
“A Window to the Past” — John Williams, from “Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban” (2004)	Reflective woodwind melody, warm strings and moderate tempo	Reflective writing, reading preparation or quiet revision
“Cornfield Chase” — Hans Zimmer, from “Interstellar” (2014)	Repeating harmonic patterns, organ timbre and gradual textural development	Mathematics practice, science work or activities involving pattern and sequence
“The Imitation Game” — Alexandre Desplat from “The Imitation Game” (2014)	Repetitive piano figures, string ostinati and controlled rhythmic momentum	Problem-solving, coding activities or familiar calculations
“Married Life” — Michael Giacchino, from “Up” (2009)	Waltz metre, recurring theme and expressive changes in tempo, harmony and instrumentation	Narrative writing, emotional interpretation or musical storytelling
“Forbidden Friendship” — John Powell, from “How to Train Your Dragon” (2010)	Layered orchestration, repeating motifs and a gradual energetic build	Creative projects, visual work or the beginning of an inquiry activity
“The Crown Main Title” — Hans Zimmer, from “The Crown” (2016–23)	Repeated string patterns, orchestral crescendo and ceremonial character	Short entry sequence, lesson launch or transition—not extended background listening
“Planet Earth II Suite” — Hans Zimmer, Jacob Shea and Jasha Klebe, from “Planet Earth II” (2016)	Expansive orchestration, broad melody and strong dynamic development	Science introductions, geography activities or inspirational lesson openings
“Sleepytime” — Joff Bush, from “Bluey”	Chamber-orchestral writing, recurring motifs and connections with Holst’s “Jupiter”	Calm reflection, active listening or an Australian screen-music example

Note. The suggested classroom applications are evidence-informed pedagogical recommendations based on each composition’s tempo, dynamics, texture, instrumentation and structural predictability. They should not be interpreted as experimentally established effects of the individual compositions. The selection criteria were informed by research into background music, arousal and cognitive performance (Cheah et al., 2022; Hallam et al., 2002; Kämpfe et al., 2011; Schellenberg, 2005; Souza & Leal Barbosa, 2023; Thompson et al., 2001; Thompson et al., 2012).

Several of these pieces have been used in the classroom described in the case study. Nevertheless, each work should be tested in its actual context because performances vary in tempo, volume and recording quality, and students differ in preference and sensory response. Teachers should begin with short listening sessions, observe behaviour and task completion, invite student feedback, and retain only works that support the intended learning environment.

Conclusion

Classical music can meaningfully contribute to classroom practice when selected with neurological, musical, and pedagogical insight. Music engages brain systems involved in auditory analysis, temporal prediction, movement, emotion, reward, and memory (Koelsch, 2014; Zatorre et al., 2007). These processes may support mood, motivation, and classroom regulation, but music can also compete with working memory and linguistic processing (Baddeley, 2012; Patel, 2003). Its influence is conditional rather than universally beneficial.

The practitioner case illustrates this conditional relationship in an authentic secondary mathematics setting. The teacher perceived a calmer climate, reduced movement and conversational volume, somewhat greater persistence, and improved personal regulation, but not a broad transformation in engagement. These observations are valuable as situated professional knowledge while remaining insufficient to demonstrate causation or improved attainment. Their primary contribution is to show how repertoire, timing, volume, student voice, sensory needs and teacher responsiveness can convert background music from an incidental addition into deliberately managed classroom infrastructure.

The strongest educational approach is therefore purposeful and flexible. Quiet, instrumental, and structurally predictable works can support transitions, familiarise students with independent tasks, encourage creative responses, facilitate interdisciplinary learning, and enhance active-listening exercises. Silence remains important for explicit instruction, demanding reading, complex reasoning, and assessment. When teachers attend to tempo, rhythm, dynamics, texture, timbre, harmony, and form—and respond to individual student needs—classical music becomes more than background decoration. It becomes a carefully managed pedagogical resource that can enrich the emotional, cultural, and intellectual life of the classroom.

Bibliography

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Discography 

The following list is of musical pieces and performances mentioned in this article, directly and indirectly.

Bach, J. S. “Air.”. On Orchestral Suite No. 3 in D Major, BWV 1068. 

Bach, J. S. “Prelude” in C Major, BWV 846. In The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1. 

Beethoven, L. van. “Scene by the Brook”. Third movement of Symphony No. 6 in F Major, “Pastoral,” Op. 68. 

Beethoven, L. Van. “Eroica Symphony”, Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major. Op. 55. 

Bush, Joff. & Barber, David. (2026). “Sleepytime.” Performed by the Queensland Symphony Orchestra and Seja Vogel. Conducted by Joseph Twist. On Bluey: Up Here. Demon Music Group.

Chuba, N., Ross, L., & Ross, A. (2024). Shōgun (Original Soundtrack). FX. 

Curtis Institute of Music. (2024). Reminisce. https://www.curtis.edu/100-for-100/reminisce/

De Philvei, A. (2024). Dune: Part Two. Hans Zimmer.com. https://hans-zimmer.com/product/dune-part-two/

Desplat, Alexandre. (2014). “The Imitation Game.” Performed by the London Symphony Orchestra. Conducted by Alexandre Desplat. On The Imitation Game: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. Sony Classical.

Fauré, G. Pavane. On Op. 50. 

Giacchino, Michael. (2009). “Married Life.” On Up: Soundtrack from the Motion Picture. Walt Disney Records/Pixar.

Glass, P., & Canada’s National Arts Centre Orchestra. (2024). Symphony No. 13. On Truth in Our Time. Orange Mountain Music. https://open.spotify.com/album/3BBoNdg3BYG6XLfrCREtmS?si=sZL32WIVTNawHzxfR5l10A 

Grieg, E. “Morning Mood”. On Peer Gynt Suite No. 1, Op. 46. 

Holst, G. “Venus, the Bringer of Peace”. In The Planets, Op. 32. 

Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts. (2024, February 5). Lincoln Center announces summer orchestra season featuring Jonathon Heyward and the premiere of Huang Ruo’s City of Floating Sounds. https://pressroom.lincolncenter.org/press-releases/view/65bd4bb499428b64b05c69dc

Marianelli, Dario. (2005). “Dawn.” Performed by Jean-Yves Thibaudet and the English Chamber Orchestra. Conducted by Benjamin Wallfisch. On Pride & Prejudice: Music from the Motion Picture. Decca Records. Mendelssohn, F. “Venetian Boat Song”. In Songs without Words, Op. 30, No. 6. 

Mozart, W. A. “Andante”. Second movement of Piano Concerto No. 21 in C Major, K. 467. 

Powell, John. (2010). “Forbidden Friendship.” Conducted by Gavin Greenaway. On How to Train Your Dragon: Music from the Motion Picture. Varèse Sarabande.

Saint-Saëns, C. “The Swan”. On The Carnival of the Animals. 

Shore, Howard. (2001). “Concerning Hobbits.” Performed by the London Philharmonic Orchestra. Conducted by Howard Shore. On The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring—Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. Reprise Records.

Vaughan Williams, R. Fantasia on Greensleeves. 

Williams, J., & London Symphony Orchestra. (1977). Star Wars: A New Hope (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack). [Audio Recording]. Lucas Film Ltd. https://open.spotify.com/album/55gMu4AvAKCbCaGv3GIXgy?si=pWTI5kwxQF64Foy1b2B67A 

Williams, John. (2004). “A Window to the Past.” Conducted by John Williams. On Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban: Soundtrack from the Motion Picture. Warner Sunset/Nonesuch/Atlantic Records.

Zimmer, Hans. (2014). “Cornfield Chase.” Conducted by Gavin Greenaway and Richard Harvey. On Interstellar: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. WaterTower Music.

Zimmer, Hans. (2016). “The Crown Main Title.” On The Crown: Season One—Soundtrack from the Netflix Original Series. Madison Gate Records and Sony Classical.

Zimmer, Hans., Shea, Jacob,. & Klebe, Jasha. (2016). “Planet Earth II Suite.” Performed by the Chamber Orchestra of London. Conducted by Geoff Alexander. On Planet Earth II: Original Television Soundtrack. Silva Screen Records.